Carved ivory staffs known as ukhurhe formed essential components of ancestral altars throughout the Benin Kingdom from at least the 18th century, though wooden examples appeared centuries earlier. These ritual implements, designed to summon spirits of deceased rulers and family heads, combined sculptural artistry with acoustic function through hollow chambers containing trapped wooden pieces that rattled when shaken. Members of the Igbesanmwan guild, royal wood and ivory carvers working within the inner walls of the Oba's palace compound, produced ivory examples exclusively for the royal family while commoners and chiefs commissioned wooden versions. The staff's segmented construction mimicked the ukhurhe-oho, a bamboo-like plant growing wild near Benin City, with each segment representing a single lifespan and the linked form symbolizing ancestral continuity. British soldiers looted numerous ivory staffs during the February 1897 military assault on Benin City, dispersing them to museums and private collections alongside other palace regalia. Ivory examples typically measured between 60 and 160 centimeters in height with shaft diameters of approximately 2 to 5 centimeters, weighing several kilograms depending on length and decorative elaboration.

 Material and Craftsmanship

The Igbesanmwan guild carved royal ukhurhe from elephant ivory obtained through the Oba's monopoly on the ivory trade. This material carried symbolic significance beyond its rarity and economic value. The whiteness of ivory resembled kaolin clay used in purification rituals, associating it with joy, prosperity, purity, and peace. Ivory's derivation from elephants connected it to attributes of wisdom, leadership, and physical power, all qualities desired by rulers memorialized through these staffs.

Carvers selected tusks large enough to accommodate the staff's length while maintaining structural integrity. The ivory was worked using metal tools including chisels, gouges, and scrapers, technological advantages unavailable to earlier wood carvers who relied on stone implements. The carving process began by sectioning the tusk into segments corresponding to the staff's divisions, each representing a deceased ancestor. These segments were individually carved, then reassembled and joined through internal doweling or adhesive techniques.

The lower portions of staffs received segmented carving imitating the nodes of bamboo stems. Carvers cut horizontal grooves around the shaft at regular intervals, creating visual divisions that emphasized the staff's role as generational record. The depth and spacing of these grooves varied between examples, reflecting individual carvers' stylistic preferences rather than standardized templates.

The upper section required technical sophistication to create the rattle chamber. Carvers hollowed this segment by cutting narrow rectangular slits through the ivory wall, leaving enough material to maintain structural strength while creating sufficient opening for sound to escape. A small cylindrical piece of wood or ivory was trapped inside this chamber during construction. When the staff was shaken or struck against the ground, this trapped piece bounced within the hollow chamber, producing the distinctive rattling sound believed to attract ancestral attention.

Surface decoration demonstrated exceptional skill and iconographic knowledge. Interlaced patterns covering portions of the shaft identified works produced by Igbesanmwan carvers, functioning as guild signatures. These geometric designs consisted of crossing diagonal lines creating diamond-shaped compartments, executed with precision that maintained consistent spacing and depth across entire sections. Hatching, parallel lines carved closely together, provided textural contrast to smooth polished surfaces.

Finials crowning the staffs displayed the greatest sculptural elaboration. Royal family members' examples terminated in hands or hands holding mudfish, distinguishing them from commoner and chief staffs that typically featured human heads. The hand motif referenced concepts of personal power and achievement, while mudfish symbolized transformation between terrestrial and aquatic realms, connecting to Olokun mythology. Some finials depicted elephants holding branches in their trunks, others showed human figures bearing miniature ukhurhe and stone axe heads, and certain examples presented complex compositions combining multiple symbolic elements in compressed vertical arrangements.

One particularly elaborate example features the Oba standing triumphantly on an elephant while holding a miniature ukhurhe and stone axe head, objects associated with warfare and death. Leopards, preeminent symbols of royalty in Benin art, flank the elephant on either side, suggesting the Oba's ability to regulate his chiefs' power. Ceremonial swords called eben appear in relief along the shaft, and a crocodile representing the water deity Olokun indicates overseas trade's importance to the kingdom's prosperity. At the staff's base, a second elephant likely represents the ezomo, military commander, its trunk ending in a human hand holding medicinal leaves, a Benin motif for victory and power.

 Form and Features

Benin ivory rattle staffs exhibit considerable variation in decorative programs while maintaining consistent structural elements. The basic form consists of a vertical shaft divided into segments with a rattle chamber near the summit and an elaborately carved finial at the top. Heights range from approximately 60 centimeters for smaller examples to over 160 centimeters for large ceremonial pieces. The shaft diameter typically measures 2 to 5 centimeters, providing sufficient material for structural strength while allowing detailed surface carving.


The segmented construction creates visual rhythm through horizontal divisions marking individual lifespans. Most staffs show between five and twelve segments, though some examples display more extensive divisions. The junctures between segments appear as raised bands or recessed grooves depending on carving approach. This segmentation served mnemonic functions, allowing families to count generations represented on ancestral altars and maintain genealogical knowledge across centuries.

The rattle chamber distinguishes ukhurhe from other ceremonial staffs. This hollow section occupies the upper portion of the shaft, typically positioned just below the finial. The rectangular slits cut through the chamber walls create openings measuring approximately 1 to 3 centimeters in length and several millimeters in width. These apertures must be large enough to allow sound transmission while remaining small enough to prevent the trapped wooden or ivory piece from escaping. The acoustic properties vary according to chamber size, wall thickness, and the trapped element's dimensions, producing tones ranging from sharp clicks to resonant rattles.

Finial imagery documents political iconography, religious symbolism, and historical narratives specific to the deceased individual memorialized. Hands shown with upraised thumbs executed a gesture of gathering riches, associating these staffs with altars of title-holders and personal empowerment dedicated to the Hand. Mudfish held in hands referenced transformation and spiritual power. Elephant imagery conveyed chiefdom and military might. Leopards asserted royal prerogative. Crocodiles connected to Olokun, the ocean deity controlling trade prosperity.

Some finials present narrative compositions documenting specific historical events. A staff commemorating Oba Akenzua I, who ruled in the early 18th century, displays iconography referring to his military triumph over the rebel chief Iyase n'Ode. According to Benin oral literature, Iyase n'Ode possessed the ability to transform himself into an elephant to vanquish enemies. The staff shows Akenzua standing on an elephant, visually asserting his victory through subjugation of his opponent's totemic form. The surrounding leopards, swords, and crocodiles reinforce themes of military success, divine sanction, and commercial prosperity characterizing Akenzua's reign.

The contrast between smooth polished surfaces and textured carved areas creates visual interest. Carvers achieved high polish on exposed ivory sections through repeated abrasion with progressively finer materials, likely including plant fibers and oils. These glossy areas caught light, making staffs visually prominent on altars even in dim interior spaces. The interlaced patterns and hatching retained the ivory's natural color while providing textural contrast that defined compositional elements.

 Function and Use

Ukhurhe functioned as physical manifestations of ancestral spirits on family altars. When a family head died and transitioned into ancestral status, a staff was commissioned and placed on the family altar alongside other commemorative objects including brass or wooden memorial heads, carved ivory tusks, altar bells called eroro, and stone celts. Over generations, staffs accumulated, creating visual documentation of genealogical depth and lineage prestige.

During sacrificial ceremonies honoring ancestors, the officiant removed the staff from its position leaning against the altar's back wall and shook it while uttering prayers. The rattling sound produced by the trapped piece bouncing within the hollow chamber was believed to penetrate the spirit world, alerting deceased ancestors to offerings being made in their honor. Chief Ero's annual sacrifice to his ancestors, documented by anthropologist Northcote Thomas during his 1909-10 Edo survey, involved smearing the blood of cows, goats, and fowl on staffs. Thomas noted that ukhurhe propped against the wall at Chief Ezomo's ancestral altar were stained dark brown from repeated blood applications.

The staff was also struck against the ground during ceremonies, producing percussive impacts that supplemented the internal rattle. This stamping action transferred energy into the earth, honoring ancestors buried in the ground and establishing connection between the living world and the realm of the dead. The combination of rattling and stamping created sonic environment conducive to spiritual communication.

Royal ukhurhe functioned within more elaborate ceremonial contexts than commoner staffs. The Oba's ancestral altars, containing brass commemorative heads supporting carved ivory tusks alongside multiple ivory rattle staffs, altar bells, and other regalia, demonstrated unprecedented wealth and divine sanction. These assemblages were regularly maintained through cleaning, polishing, and application of palm oil, activities that sustained material splendor while fulfilling ritual obligations to ancestral spirits.

The restriction of ivory staffs to royal family members enforced social hierarchy through material differentiation. Only the Oba could grant permission to use ivory in ceremonial contexts, as he controlled the ivory trade monopoly. This economic power translated into ritual authority, creating systems where material access reflected political status. Chiefs and commoners commissioned wooden ukhurhe that served identical spiritual functions but lacked ivory's symbolic associations with purity, wisdom, and royal prerogative.

Thomas's documentation of multiple ukhurhe on Chief Ero's altar where only two ancestral names could be recalled suggests that individual staffs eventually lost specific associations and merged into collective ancestral representation. This transition from particular commemorat ion to generalized veneration allowed altars to function as interfaces with the ancestral realm broadly conceived rather than requiring detailed knowledge of every deceased individual's identity.

 Cultural Context

The development of ivory carving in Benin traces to the 13th century, though the tradition of rattle staffs likely predated ivory working. Wooden versions existed before ivory examples, serving identical acoustic and spiritual functions while using locally available materials accessible to craftspeople without royal patronage. The introduction of ivory carving elevated certain ritual objects into exclusive royal possessions, transforming staffs from universal commemorative implements into markers of aristocratic privilege.

The Igbesanmwan guild's organization paralleled other specialized craft groups including brass casters, coral bead workers, and wood sculptors, all maintaining hereditary monopolies over production for royal patrons. Guild members lived and worked within the palace compound's inner walls, positioning them even closer to royal authority than the brass casters who occupied the Igun Eronmwon quarter. This spatial proximity reflected ivory carving's importance to royal ritual and the Oba's desire to control craftspeople capable of producing such symbolically charged materials.

Portuguese contact beginning in 1485 transformed Benin's ivory trade by creating unprecedented external demand. European collectors commissioned elaborate ivory salt cellars, spoons, hunting horns, and other objects from Igbesanmwan carvers, paying substantial sums for works combining African artistic sensibilities with European functional forms. This export production enriched the kingdom while creating international market for Benin craftsmanship. However, the most sacred ivory objects including rattle staffs remained exclusively for internal ritual use, never entering commercial circulation until the 1897 British looting.

The theological framework underlying ancestral veneration emphasized continuity between living and dead. Edo cosmology held that deceased persons who fulfilled their social destinies during life became ancestors capable of influencing events in the living world. The head was considered the seat of wisdom and supernatural guidance for rational behavior. Commemorative objects including ukhurhe functioned as focal points for communication, vessels through which the living could petition ancestors for assistance with warfare, fertility, economic prosperity, health, and other concerns.

The Oba's relationship with ancestors carried exceptional significance, as the kingdom's survival, security, and prosperity depended on his wisdom and ancestral support for his reign. The Igue Erha Oba ceremony, performed when the new Oba made offerings at his father's shrine, was considered essential for reign continuation. These rituals established reciprocal relationships where the living provided sacrificial sustenance to ancestors in exchange for spiritual protection and guidance.

 Discovery and Preservation

British forces under Admiral Harry Rawson invaded Benin City on February 18, 1897, following the January massacre of Acting Consul-General James Robert Phillips and most members of his delegation. Phillips had attempted to enter the city during the annual Igue festival despite warnings that foreigners could not visit during ritual periods when the Oba was spiritually engaged. The British military response resulted in palace looting, removal of an estimated 10,000 objects including ivory rattle staffs, and systematic burning of the city.

The dispersal of looted materials proceeded through multiple channels. Some objects were distributed among expedition members according to military rank. Additional pieces were auctioned in London during summer 1897 to offset expedition costs. The Crown Agents for the Colonies facilitated distribution to museums, dealers, and private collectors throughout Europe and North America. This commercial circulation created current patterns of institutional holdings scattered across continents.

The British Museum received gifts of Benin objects from the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and purchased additional pieces from dealers handling looted materials. The museum's collection includes multiple ivory ukhurhe demonstrating stylistic variation and decorative elaboration. One example features a segmented stem with an upper cylindrical section decorated with interlace and hatching, topped by a finial in the form of an elephant holding a branch in its trunk.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York holds significant examples including a wooden staff measuring 60.75 inches in height and a brass example measuring 63.5 inches tall commemorating Oba Akenzua I. These pieces entered the collection through purchases from dealers and private collectors who acquired them during post-1897 dispersal. The museum's documentation provides provenance information tracing ownership chains back to the expedition period, though original altar contexts remain unknown.

Anthropologist Northcote Thomas documented ancestral altars containing ukhurhe during his 1909-10 survey of Edo-speaking peoples in Southern Nigeria. His photographs taken just 12 years after the city's destruction demonstrate that substantial amounts of ritual material escaped looting. Chief Ezomo's palace ancestral altar, photographed by Thomas, shows multiple ukhurhe propped against the back wall alongside brass memorial heads and altar bells. These images provide crucial evidence for understanding how staffs functioned within altar assemblages before colonial disruption.

Thomas commissioned ukhurhe from the Igbesanmwan guild head, titled Eholo N'Igbesamwan, in 1909. He paid approximately 25 pounds, equivalent to roughly 2,850 pounds in current currency, for staffs that were either carved by Eholo personally or by other guild members under his supervision. These commissioned pieces entered European ethnographic collections, providing documented examples of early 20th-century production maintaining traditional forms despite the traumatic events of 1897.

British colonial authorities permitted restoration of the Benin monarchy in 1914, installing Eweka II as Oba within a colonial protectorate. Eweka prioritized renewal of artistic production and ceremonial practices disrupted by the 1897 assault. Contemporary Igbesanmwan carvers continue producing ukhurhe using traditional techniques, maintaining craft continuity despite the violent interruption. These contemporary works serve ancestral altars rebuilt after looting, demonstrating resilience of ritual practice despite material dispossession.

 Why It Matters

Benin ivory rattle staffs document sophisticated carving traditions and ritual systems connecting living communities to ancestral spirits through material objects designed for acoustic communication with the spirit realm. The restriction of ivory examples to royal family members demonstrates how material access reinforced political hierarchies and religious authority in precolonial West African kingdoms. The survival of wooden staffs alongside ivory examples illustrates class differentiation in ritual practice where spiritual functions remained constant while materials signaled social position. The systematic looting of these staffs during the 1897 British expedition exemplifies colonial violence that deliberately targeted objects sustaining indigenous religious systems, believing their removal would break ancestral power and facilitate political control. Contemporary repatriation movements seeking return of ivory ukhurhe to Nigeria address historical injustices while confronting questions about the possibility of restoring ritual contexts permanently disrupted by violent dispossession.