The Benin Bronze Plaques

Several thousand brass relief plaques once decorated the royal palace walls of Benin City, the capital of the Kingdom of Benin in what is now Edo State, Nigeria. Created primarily during the 16th and early 17th centuries under the reigns of Oba Esigie and his son Oba Orhogbua, these rectangular metal panels documented the kingdom's history, ceremonies, and court life through images cast in high relief. The Guild of Benin Bronze Casters, known as Igun Eronmwon, produced these works using the lost-wax casting technique, achieving thicknesses of only 3 millimeters while maintaining extraordinary detail. The plaques hung on wooden pillars in the palace's audience courtyards until they were removed and stored sometime during the 17th century. British forces seized approximately 900 of these plaques during the February 1897 punitive expedition that destroyed Benin City, finding them carefully preserved in a palace storeroom. Today, these objects remain dispersed across museums and private collections worldwide, with the British Museum holding over 900 pieces, while ongoing repatriation efforts seek their return to Nigeria.

 Material and Craftsmanship

The Benin plaques consist of brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, despite their common designation as bronzes. Chemical analysis reveals varying proportions of copper, zinc, and lead, with some pieces containing small amounts of tin. Recent isotope studies demonstrate that the brass originated from Portuguese manillas, horseshoe-shaped currency rings used in European trade with West Africa. Specifically, the tacoais type of manilla, produced in Germany's Rhineland region, provided the raw material. The high lead content of these early Portuguese manillas made them ideal for casting, as the metal flowed easily when molten.

Edo metalsmiths melted down the imported manillas and recast them using the lost-wax technique. This complex process began with creating a clay core shaped to the plaque's basic form. Workers then applied a thin sheet of beeswax over this core, carving all details, figures, and decorative elements directly into the wax surface. The characteristic quatrefoil rosette patterns decorating the backgrounds were added at this stage. After completing the wax model, craftsmen coated it with fine clay investment, building up successive layers to create a sturdy outer mold.

When heated, the wax melted and drained away, leaving a cavity between the clay core and outer mold. Molten brass poured into this space filled every detail carved in the original wax. After cooling, workers broke away the outer clay mold, revealing the finished plaque. The clay core often remained partially embedded in the metal, and conservators have discovered that this reddish material was sometimes intentionally left in recesses as part of the finished appearance.

The thinness of the plaques represents extraordinary technical achievement. At 3 millimeters thick, they surpassed contemporary European casting standards. Felix von Luschan, examining pieces in the late 19th century, stated that Benvenuto Cellini, considered Renaissance Europe's greatest metalworker, could not have produced superior castings. Each mold could be used only once, as retrieval of the cast plaque required destroying the outer clay. Every plaque was therefore unique, with no duplicates or copies.

Originally, the brass surfaces were kept polished to a brilliant golden luster. In Edo language, the phrase "to commemorate" literally means "to cast a form in brass," reflecting the metal's significance. The bright, reflective quality held ritual and royal meaning in Edo tradition. Over centuries, the brass has acquired a greenish-brown patina from corrosion, obscuring the original gleaming appearance.

 Form and Features

The plaques measure between 38 and 51 centimeters in height and 30 to 40 centimeters in width, with most falling within a relatively standard size range. This consistency resulted from the guild system's centralized control, where the Ineh n'Igun Eronmwon supervised production, standardized dimensions, and ensured quality. The rectangular format and uniform sizing allowed the plaques to be arranged in orderly rows along palace pillars.

Figures appear in high relief, raised approximately 5 to 10 millimeters above the background surface. Most plaques depict one, two, or three human figures arranged hierarchically, with the most important individual positioned centrally and rendered at larger scale. The figures wear elaborate regalia including coral bead necklaces, ceremonial dress, and headdresses that identify their rank and role within the court hierarchy.

Common subjects include the Oba himself, shown in full royal regalia with attendants, palace chiefs carrying ceremonial swords and staffs, warriors with shields and weapons, and court musicians. Some plaques document specific ceremonies, such as the annual ritual where the Oba sacrificed leopards to strengthen his mystical powers. Others show the Oba receiving tribute or audiences with foreign visitors, particularly Portuguese traders and soldiers who appear in several plaques wearing European clothing and carrying firearms.

The backgrounds feature dense decorative patterns of quatrefoil rosettes, creating textured surfaces that contrast with the smooth figures. These rosettes may derive from foliate designs with symbolic meaning, though their exact significance remains debated. The decorative backgrounds also served practical purposes, adding visual interest and helping distinguish figures from the surface behind them.

Symbolic animals appear throughout the plaques. Mudfish, associated with the Oba's ability to traverse both earthly and spiritual realms, frequently accompany royal figures. Leopards, representing royal power and the wilderness beyond civilization, appear either as attendants to the Oba or as sacrificial victims. Crocodiles, ibis, and other creatures with cosmological significance also feature in the compositions.

The hierarchical scale employed throughout demonstrates sophisticated artistic conventions. Important figures appear larger than subordinates regardless of their actual spatial relationships. The Oba towers over attendants who might stand beside him. This visual language communicated status instantly to viewers, reinforcing social structures through artistic representation.

 Function and Use

The plaques functioned as historical documentation, displaying significant events, ceremonies, and persons from the kingdom's past. They served as a visual chronicle accessible to court visitors, including foreign traders and diplomatic missions. The images reinforced the Oba's authority by showing him as the central figure in all important activities, surrounded by loyal officials and subordinates.

Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper, writing in 1668, described wooden pillars in the palace galleries covered with brass plaques showing "merchants, soldiers, wild beast hunters" and other figures. This contemporary account confirms that the plaques were publicly displayed on the palace pillars, visible to all who entered the royal courtyards. The orderly arrangement along the columns created a systematic visual record spanning generations of the kingdom's history.

The plaques also carried religious significance. Brass itself was a sacred material, controlled exclusively by the Oba. Only the king could authorize brass objects, making ownership a marker of royal permission and favor. The metal's color and luster associated it with divine power and royal authority. Creating brass objects through the lost-wax process involved ritual practices, and the act of casting commemorative images was inseparable from religious belief.

Sometime during the 17th century, the plaques were removed from public display and carefully stored. Dutch visitor David van Nyendael, writing in 1702, described the palace galleries but mentioned wooden reliefs rather than brass plaques, suggesting the change had occurred between Dapper's 1668 account and Nyendael's visit. Scholars have proposed various explanations for this removal, including palace remodeling, changes in commemorative practices, or economic factors, though no definitive evidence establishes the reason.

The stored plaques remained preserved for approximately two centuries until British forces discovered them in 1897. Their storage in a palace compound indicates they retained value and significance even when no longer publicly displayed, treated as precious records worthy of protection.

 Cultural Context

The Kingdom of Benin emerged as a major West African power by the 13th century. The Oba ruled through a complex administrative system including palace chiefs, town chiefs, and titled officials organized in hierarchical councils. The kingdom controlled extensive territories and trade networks, exchanging ivory, pepper, cloth, and other goods with European merchants who arrived on the West African coast in the late 15th century.

Portuguese traders established contact with Benin in 1485. Initial relations involved cultural and diplomatic exchanges alongside commercial trade. The Portuguese sent Catholic missionaries, and the Oba sent envoys to Lisbon. Trade goods included pepper, ivory, and textiles from Benin, while Europeans provided brass manillas, coral beads, firearms, and other manufactured items. Contrary to common assumptions, Benin restricted slave trade after an early period of limited participation, focusing instead on other commercial products.

The brass plaques document this era of prosperity and international engagement. Depictions of Portuguese soldiers and traders demonstrate that contact with Europeans was important enough to permanently record in royal art. The plaques show Europeans as visitors to the Benin court rather than equals or superiors, reinforcing the message that foreign powers came to the Oba, not the reverse.

By the late 19th century, British imperial ambitions in West Africa focused on controlling coastal trade and expanding territorial holdings. The Kingdom of Benin maintained independence while European colonial powers carved up surrounding regions. British officials viewed Benin's monopoly over trade in its territories as an obstacle to commercial exploitation. Multiple attempts to negotiate trade agreements failed as the Oba sought to preserve autonomy.

In January 1897, British Acting Consul General James Phillips led an unauthorized expedition toward Benin City despite warnings that sacred ceremonies were underway. Palace protocol prohibited strangers during these religious observances. Phillips's party was ambushed, and most members were killed. British authorities used this incident to justify a large-scale military response.

 Discovery and Preservation

Admiral Sir Harry Rawson led the punitive expedition of 1,200 troops that attacked Benin City in February 1897. British forces divided into three columns, burning villages and killing civilians and combatants as they advanced. They captured Benin City on February 18, looting the royal palace and Queen Mother's residence before burning both structures. Thousands of brass plaques, sculptures, ivory carvings, and other ceremonial objects were seized.

The exact number of objects removed remains uncertain, with estimates ranging from 3,000 to 10,000 pieces. The brass plaques alone numbered approximately 900. British soldiers distributed some objects among themselves according to rank, while others were shipped to London. Many items were auctioned to pay expedition costs, entering museums and private collections across Europe and America. Within months, 300 plaques were exhibited at the British Museum.

European art experts immediately recognized the plaques' technical and aesthetic quality. Charles Hercules Read at the British Museum and Felix von Luschan in Berlin praised their sophistication, comparing them favorably to Renaissance metalwork. This recognition contradicted prevailing racist assumptions about African capabilities, forcing European scholars to acknowledge advanced artistic traditions existed in Africa.

Oba Ovonramwen, who had escaped during the invasion, surrendered in August 1897. Though not convicted in trials for Phillips's death, he was exiled to Calabar, where he died in 1914. The British formally incorporated Benin into colonial Nigeria, ending the kingdom's independence.

The dispersed objects became known collectively as the Benin Bronzes despite most being brass and including works in ivory, wood, and other materials. Major holdings developed at the British Museum, Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology at Cambridge, Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, and multiple German institutions. American museums also acquired significant collections.

Repatriation efforts began in the mid-20th century and intensified in recent decades. The Benin Dialogue Group, established in 2007, created formal mechanisms for discussion between Nigerian authorities and European museums. Some institutions have returned objects, notably Germany's commitment to comprehensive repatriation and the Horniman Museum becoming the first UK institution to return pieces in November 2022. The British Museum, holding over 900 objects, faces ongoing pressure but remains constrained by legislation preventing deaccessioning from its permanent collection.

Plans for the Benin Royal Museum in Benin City aim to provide appropriate facilities for returned objects, though construction has proceeded slowly. Debates continue regarding whether repatriated items should go to the Oba, Edo State government, Nigerian federal authorities, or purpose-built museums.

 Why It Matters

The Benin bronze plaques demonstrate sophisticated metalworking techniques that matched or exceeded contemporary European casting standards, challenging colonial-era assumptions about African artistic and technical capabilities. The plaques preserve detailed visual documentation of court life, ceremonies, royal regalia, and historical events from the 16th and 17th centuries that textual sources alone cannot provide. The 1897 looting and subsequent dispersal of these objects exemplifies colonial violence and cultural destruction that characterized European imperialism in Africa. The ongoing repatriation debates raise fundamental questions about ownership, cultural heritage, and institutional responsibilities regarding objects acquired through colonial violence. The plaques continue to serve as evidence of the Kingdom of Benin's artistic achievements while simultaneously functioning as permanent witnesses to the circumstances of their removal from their original context.