European travelers discovered two fragmentary black siltstone obelisks in Cairo during the 18th century, monuments that had been removed from their original location and repurposed as building materials in the city's fortifications. English explorer Richard Pococke documented one obelisk reused as a window sill in Cairo's citadel in 1737, while Danish mathematician Carsten Niebuhr recorded the companion piece at the same site in 1762. These paired monuments, originally erected around 350 BCE at the entrance to a sanctuary of Thoth in Hermopolis, approximately 250 kilometers south of Cairo, represent the building activities of Nectanebo II, Egypt's last native pharaoh before Persian conquest. Napoleon's forces transported both obelisks to Alexandria in 1801 with the intention of shipping them to France for display at the Louvre, but British victory in the Battle of Alexandria resulted in their confiscation along with other antiquities including the Rosetta Stone. Currently standing in the Great Court of the British Museum under catalog numbers EA 523 and EA 524, these fragmentary shafts measure 2.74 meters in their present truncated state, though scholars estimate the original monuments stood approximately 5.5 meters tall. The choice of black siltstone rather than the traditional red granite distinguishes these obelisks from most Egyptian examples and reflects the archaizing artistic trends of the 30th Dynasty.
Material and Craftsmanship
Craftsmen carved both obelisks from black siltstone, a fine-grained sedimentary rock quarried from Wadi Hammamat in Egypt's eastern desert. This material selection represented an unusual choice for obelisk construction, as most Egyptian obelisks were fashioned from red granite extracted from quarries at Aswan. The dark coloration of siltstone, ranging from deep gray to nearly black, created a striking visual contrast with the bright Egyptian sunlight and distinguished these monuments from the reddish granite examples that dominated temple complexes throughout Egypt.
Siltstone forms through the compaction of silt particles over geological time, creating a rock type intermediate in hardness between soft limestone and extremely hard granite. The Wadi Hammamat quarries supplied siltstone for elite objects throughout Egyptian history, particularly during periods when archaizing artistic movements looked backward to earlier traditions. The 30th Dynasty, during which Nectanebo II ruled, witnessed a deliberate revival of Old Kingdom artistic styles and religious practices following the disruption of Persian occupation during the 27th Dynasty.
Workers employed copper or bronze chisels, stone hammers, and abrasive sand to shape the obelisks. The monolithic construction required extracting a single block of stone large enough to accommodate the tapered shaft, a process involving the creation of trenches around the desired block, then using wooden wedges soaked in water to split the stone free from the quarry face. Transportation from Wadi Hammamat to the Nile required dragging the rough-cut blocks across desert routes using wooden sledges, then loading them onto barges for river transport to Hermopolis.
The carving process began with rough shaping to establish the obelisk's characteristic form: a square or rectangular base tapering gradually toward the top, which would have terminated in a pyramidal point called a pyramidion. Craftsmen marked guidelines on all four faces before beginning the detailed work of inscribing hieroglyphic texts. The inscriptions were carved using sunk relief technique, where symbols are cut into the stone surface rather than raised above it. This method, also called intaglio, created shadows within the carved areas that enhanced legibility from ground level.
The quality of the hieroglyphic carving demonstrates exceptional skill. Each symbol maintains consistent depth and width, with clean edges and smooth internal surfaces. The carvers achieved remarkable precision despite working on such hard stone. Modern examination reveals tool marks indicating that craftsmen used fine copper or bronze chisels struck with controlled hammer blows to remove material gradually. After completing the carving, workers smoothed the stone surfaces using progressively finer abrasives, though they chose not to polish the siltstone to a high luster, leaving it with a matte finish that retained the stone's natural dark appearance.
A band approximately 8 to 10 centimeters high at the base of each obelisk shaft was left deliberately rough and unfinished. This feature indicates the obelisks were designed to be set into prepared foundations, with only the upper portions visible above the temple pavement. The rough band would have been concealed once the monuments were positioned, making elaborate finishing of this section unnecessary. This construction detail provides insight into how such monuments were installed and stabilized.
Form and Features
Each obelisk conforms to the classic Egyptian obelisk form: a monolithic shaft with a square cross-section that tapers gradually from base to apex. The current fragmentary state of both monuments, standing 2.74 meters tall, represents approximately half their original height. Scholars estimate the complete obelisks measured 5.5 meters from base to pyramidion tip, making them relatively modest examples compared to massive royal obelisks like those of Thutmose III, which exceeded 20 meters in height and weighed hundreds of tons.
The pyramidions that originally crowned both obelisks are missing from the British Museum specimens. One fragmentary pyramidion from this pair resides in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, though it is not publicly exhibited. The pyramidion, the capstone forming the obelisk's apex, typically bore additional inscriptions and would have caught the first rays of dawn sunlight, symbolically connecting the monument to Ra, the sun god.
All four faces of each obelisk shaft display hieroglyphic inscriptions arranged in vertical columns. The texts on the north and south faces contain identical content, as do the inscriptions on the east and west faces. This mirroring pattern reflects standard Egyptian practice for paired obelisks flanking temple entrances. The hieroglyphs face inward toward the temple entrance on the outer faces and outward from the sanctuary on the inner faces, a directional arrangement that honored both the approaching worshipper and the resident deity.
The inscriptions record the dedication to Thoth, identified by his epithet "the Twice-Great, Lord of Hermopolis." Thoth, depicted as an ibis-headed man or as a baboon, served as god of writing, wisdom, and the moon. Hermopolis, located in Middle Egypt on the Nile's west bank, functioned as Thoth's principal cult center from the Old Kingdom through the Roman period. The city's Egyptian name, Khemenu, meant "Eight-Town," referencing the Ogdoad, eight primordial deities worshipped there who represented the waters of chaos before creation.
Cartouches containing Nectanebo II's royal names appear at regular intervals within the inscriptional program. Egyptian kings bore multiple names according to their titulary: the Horus name, the Nebty name, the Golden Horus name, the prenomen, and the nomen. The cartouches on these obelisks display both the prenomen and nomen. The prenomen, assumed upon accession to the throne, reads "Senedjemibre Setepenanhur," meaning "He who makes firm the heart of Ra, chosen of Anhur." The nomen, the birth name, reads "Nakhthorheb," meaning "Strong is Horus of Hebyt." Greek sources transformed this name into Nectanebos, from which the modern form Nectanebo derives.
The hieroglyphic texts include standard offering formulae requesting divine protection and favor for the king. The inscriptions invoke Thoth's power to grant life, stability, and dominion, essential concepts in Egyptian royal ideology. The careful arrangement of signs demonstrates the scribal skill required to lay out lengthy texts within the confined space of an obelisk face while maintaining aesthetic balance and proper reading order.
The black coloration of the siltstone created dramatic visual impact within the temple setting. While red granite obelisks gleamed warmly in sunlight, these dark monuments absorbed light, creating a somber, powerful presence. The color black held positive associations in Egyptian thought, connected to the fertile black soil of the Nile floodplain and to concepts of regeneration and resurrection. The choice of black stone for a monument dedicated to Thoth may have carried additional symbolic resonance, as night was the domain of the moon god.
Function and Use
The paired obelisks stood at the entrance to a sanctuary of Thoth within the larger temple complex at Hermopolis. Obelisks functioned primarily as solar symbols, their pointed pyramidions reaching toward the sky to capture the sun's rays. The Egyptian word for obelisk, "techen," derived from a root meaning "to pierce" or "to protect," suggesting these monuments served apotropaic functions, warding off harmful forces from sacred spaces.
Placement of obelisks at temple entrances followed conventions established during the Old Kingdom. As worshippers approached the temple, they would pass between the two monuments, which marked the transition from the profane exterior world to the sacred interior realm of the gods. The vertical thrust of the obelisks drew the eye upward, directing attention toward the divine realm above while simultaneously anchoring that celestial sphere to the earthly temple below.
The inscriptions dedicating the obelisks to Thoth affirmed Nectanebo II's piety and his role as intermediary between gods and humans. Egyptian kings bore responsibility for maintaining maat, the cosmic order, through proper worship and temple maintenance. By erecting monuments, kings demonstrated their fulfillment of this obligation while simultaneously advertising their power and resources. The ability to quarry, transport, carve, and erect such substantial stone objects required mobilizing significant labor forces and material resources, capabilities that only powerful rulers could command.
The choice to honor Thoth specifically at Hermopolis reflected both local religious significance and broader political considerations. Thoth's association with wisdom, writing, and divine knowledge made him an appropriate patron for royal building projects. Additionally, Hermopolis occupied a strategic position in Middle Egypt, a region that required careful political management. By investing in Hermopolis's temples, Nectanebo II cultivated support from the powerful priestly establishment and local population.
The relatively modest size of these obelisks compared to massive New Kingdom examples suggests they may have been placed not at the main temple entrance but at the doorway to a subsidiary shrine or chapel within the complex. The inscriptions specifically mention placement "at the doorway of the sanctuary of Thoth," language that could indicate an inner shrine rather than the outermost temple pylon. Smaller obelisks commonly flanked ramps leading to elevated portions of temples, marking transitions between architectural levels and ritual spaces of increasing sanctity.
The monuments would have been visible during temple ceremonies and festivals. Hermopolis hosted major celebrations during the lunar calendar, honoring Thoth's role as moon god and measurer of time. During these festivals, processions of priests and worshippers would have passed between the obelisks, their dark surfaces forming a ceremonial gateway. The hieroglyphic texts, though perhaps not fully legible to ordinary viewers, communicated through their mere presence the king's devotion and the god's protection.
Cultural Context
Nectanebo II ruled Egypt from approximately 360 to 343 BCE during the 30th Dynasty, Egypt's final period of native rule before Persian conquest. His reign occurred during a tumultuous era when the Achaemenid Persian Empire repeatedly attempted to reassert control over Egypt, which had achieved independence in 404 BCE following the first period of Persian domination. The 30th Dynasty represented Egypt's defiant resistance against foreign rule, though this independence would ultimately prove temporary.
The 30th Dynasty witnessed a remarkable revival of Egyptian art, architecture, and religious practice following the cultural disruption of Persian occupation. Kings of this dynasty, particularly Nectanebo I and Nectanebo II, undertook extensive temple construction and restoration projects throughout Egypt. This building program served multiple purposes: demonstrating royal power and piety, gaining support from the influential priestly class, and asserting cultural continuity with Egypt's glorious past. The artistic style developed during this period deliberately emulated Old Kingdom models, creating works that referenced traditions over two millennia old.
Nectanebo II came to power through a palace coup. His grandfather, Nectanebo I, had founded the dynasty and successfully defended Egypt against Persian invasion. Nectanebo I's son Teos succeeded to the throne and launched an ambitious but ill-conceived military campaign against Persian territories in Syria. The campaign required heavy taxation and confiscation of temple property, policies that alienated both the general population and powerful priests. Nectanebo II, who accompanied the expedition as commander of Egyptian troops, was proclaimed king by the army while still in Syria. Teos fled to the Persian court, and Nectanebo II returned to Egypt as pharaoh.
The new king pursued policies designed to rebuild support that his uncle had squandered. He reduced taxes, restored confiscated temple property, and launched an unprecedented building campaign. More than thirty sites throughout Egypt, from the Mediterranean Delta to Elephantine at the First Cataract, preserve evidence of Nectanebo II's construction activities. These included completely new temples, additions to existing sanctuaries, and gifts of temple furniture. The scale of this building program during a period of constant military threat demonstrates both Nectanebo II's resources and his political priorities.
The Hermopolis obelisks represent one element of this broader construction program. By honoring Thoth at his principal cult center, Nectanebo II reinforced his relationship with Middle Egyptian power structures. The choice of traditional obelisk forms connected his reign to the great pyramid builders of the Old Kingdom and the imperial pharaohs of the New Kingdom. This conscious archaism characterized 30th Dynasty art, which sought legitimacy through association with Egypt's ancient glory.
Nectanebo II successfully defended Egypt against Persian invasion in 351 BCE, repelling an assault led by Artaxerxes III with the help of Greek mercenaries. This victory earned him widespread reverence and reinforced his image as Egypt's protector. However, his involvement in rebellions against Persian rule in Phoenicia and Cyprus provoked renewed Persian determination to reconquer Egypt. When Artaxerxes III launched a second, more carefully planned invasion in 343 BCE, Egyptian defenses crumbled through a combination of military defeat, bribery of garrison commanders, and betrayal by the mercenary general Mentor of Rhodes, who switched sides to the Persians.
Following defeats at Pelusium and Bubastis, Nectanebo II retreated to Memphis. As Persian forces advanced and additional cities surrendered, he recognized his cause was lost and fled southward, reportedly seeking refuge in Nubia. Ancient sources disagree about his ultimate fate. Some suggest he maintained independent rule in Upper Egypt for several years, while others claim he died in exile. Later legend, preserved in the Alexander Romance, transformed Nectanebo II into a master magician who fled to Macedonia, where he fathered Alexander the Great through seduction of Queen Olympias. This fantastic tale reflects Egyptian desire to maintain symbolic continuity even under foreign rule.
The Persian reconquest marked the beginning of Egypt's Second Persian Period, also called the 31st Dynasty. Persian rule lasted only until 332 BCE, when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and was welcomed as a liberator. The brief Persian interlude between Nectanebo II's flight and Alexander's arrival meant that Nectanebo II holds the distinction of being Egypt's last native pharaoh, the final ruler of an independent Egypt governed by Egyptians for over three millennia.
Discovery and Preservation
The original location of the obelisks at Hermopolis cannot be determined with certainty, as both monuments had been removed to Cairo before European travelers documented them. Hermopolis itself, known in Arabic as Al-Ashmunayn, preserves extensive ruins from multiple periods of Egyptian history. Most visible remains date to the Greco-Roman era, when the city continued to thrive as a regional center. A British Museum archaeological expedition conducted between 1980 and 1990 uncovered evidence of earlier temple structures beneath later construction, confirming continuous occupation and religious activity from pharaonic times through the Roman period.
The mechanisms by which the obelisks reached Cairo remain undocumented. Ancient Egyptian monuments were frequently reused throughout antiquity and into the Islamic period, when builders incorporated pharaonic stone blocks into new construction. The repurposing of one obelisk as a window sill in Cairo's citadel, as documented by Pococke, exemplifies this practice. The citadel, constructed during the Ayyubid period in the 12th century CE and expanded under subsequent rulers, required massive quantities of building stone, much of which was quarried from ancient sites.
Richard Pococke, traveling through Egypt in 1737 during the early phases of European archaeological interest in pharaonic civilization, recognized the obelisk fragment incorporated into the citadel as an ancient monument worthy of documentation. His account, published in his travel narrative, alerted other scholars to the object's existence. Carsten Niebuhr, part of the Danish Arabia Expedition of 1761-1767, conducted more systematic documentation when he recorded the second obelisk at the same Cairo location in 1762. Niebuhr's careful measurements and drawings established him as one of the era's most reliable scientific observers.
Napoleon Bonaparte's Egyptian expedition of 1798-1801, though primarily a military campaign, included a substantial scientific component. The Commission des Sciences et des Arts, comprising scholars, engineers, and artists, systematically documented Egyptian antiquities. When they identified the two obelisk fragments as a matched pair originally from Hermopolis, they arranged for their transport to Alexandria with the intention of shipping them to France. The obelisks joined a collection of antiquities assembled for future display at the Louvre, demonstrating French ambitions to establish themselves as heirs to ancient Egyptian civilization.
The French defeat at the Battle of Alexandria in August 1801 altered these plans. The capitulation agreement between French and British forces included provisions regarding the antiquities the French had gathered. British officials demanded surrender of the most significant pieces, arguing that these objects belonged to Egypt and should not leave the country under French control. The Rosetta Stone, crucial for deciphering hieroglyphics, headed the list of contested items. The two Nectanebo II obelisks, along with several other substantial monuments, were also confiscated.
British forces transported the seized antiquities to England, where they entered the British Museum's collection. The museum, founded in 1753, was rapidly expanding its Egyptian holdings during this period. The obelisks arrived as fragmentary shafts without their pyramidions, having suffered damage either during their original removal from Hermopolis, their repurposing as building materials, or their subsequent transportation. The missing upper portions limited scholarly understanding of the complete inscriptional program, though the surviving texts provided sufficient information to identify the monuments' royal patron and original dedication.
The obelisks were initially stored and studied but not immediately placed on public display. As the museum's Egyptian galleries expanded during the 19th century, the obelisks gradually received more prominent positioning. Their final placement in the Great Court, the museum's central courtyard redesigned with a modern glass and steel roof structure completed in 2000, provides visitors with immediate exposure to ancient Egyptian monumental art. The paired obelisks stand at opposite corners of the Great Court, EA 523 at the southwest corner and EA 524 at the northeast corner, separated by considerable distance rather than positioned as the matched pair they originally formed.
Scholarly study of the obelisks has contributed to understanding 30th Dynasty art and epigraphy. The hieroglyphic inscriptions have been documented photographically and through detailed drawings, allowing comparative analysis with other Nectanebo II monuments. The choice of black siltstone has been examined in the context of archaizing trends and material symbolism. The estimated original height of 5.5 meters has been calculated by comparing the surviving shaft proportions with complete obelisks of similar design.
The question of repatriation has been raised periodically, as it has for numerous Egyptian antiquities in European and American museums. Egyptian authorities have not made official repatriation requests for the Nectanebo II obelisks specifically, focusing instead on more prominent pieces like the Rosetta Stone. The British Museum maintains that the obelisks were legally acquired through the 1801 capitulation agreement and that they provide educational value to millions of visitors while remaining accessible to scholars worldwide.
Why It Matters
The obelisks of Nectanebo II document the final flowering of native Egyptian artistic and architectural traditions before Persian conquest ended three millennia of indigenous rule. The monuments demonstrate that even during a period of military threat and political instability, Egyptian kings commanded sufficient resources to undertake substantial temple construction and maintained cultural continuity through deliberate emulation of ancient forms. The unusual choice of black siltstone rather than traditional red granite reflects the archaizing artistic movement of the 30th Dynasty, when looking backward to Old Kingdom models served to legitimize contemporary royal authority. The inscriptions identify Thoth as recipient of royal devotion, documenting the continued importance of traditional Egyptian deities despite centuries of foreign cultural influence. The discovery circumstances, including repurposing as building materials in medieval Cairo and confiscation by British forces following Napoleon's defeat, illustrate the complex history of archaeological objects as they passed from ancient Egyptian religious contexts through multiple episodes of reuse and collection. The current display in the British Museum makes these monuments accessible to a global audience while raising ongoing questions about the appropriate location for objects removed from their original cultural contexts during the colonial period.