British archaeologist Austen Henry Layard discovered the first carved ivory plaques at Nimrud, ancient Kalhu, on the second day of excavations at the site in December 1845, unearthing fragments scattered among wood ashes at the bottom of a chamber in the Northwest Palace. Over the following 118 years, excavations by Layard, William Kennett Loftus, Max Mallowan, and Iraqi archaeologists recovered thousands of carved ivory pieces dating from the 9th to 7th centuries BCE, constituting one of the largest collections of ancient ivory in the world. Most pieces functioned as decorative inlays for wooden furniture including thrones, beds, tables, and cosmetic boxes, featuring intricate low-relief carvings of mythological scenes, royal hunts, religious processions, and protective deities. Scientific analysis and stylistic studies identified three distinct artistic traditions among the ivories: Assyrian incised work, Phoenician designs showing strong Egyptian influence, and Syrian three-dimensional sculptural techniques. Despite being found at the Assyrian capital, most ivories originated outside Mesopotamia, created by Phoenician and Syrian craftsmen in the Levant before arriving at Nimrud as tribute, trade goods, or war booty during Assyrian military campaigns. The finest pieces, including the famous "Mona Lisa of Nimrud" discovered by Mallowan in a palace well in 1951, are divided between the Iraq Museum in Baghdad, which holds approximately 80 percent of excavated ivories, and institutions in the United Kingdom and United States, with the British Museum holding over 1,000 complete ivories and 5,000 fragments acquired through excavation divisions and a controversial 2011 purchase.
Material and Craftsmanship
The ivories were carved from African and Asian elephant tusks, material that had to be imported to Mesopotamia as elephants did not inhabit the region during the 1st millennium BCE. Syrian elephants, depicted in earlier Bronze Age art and texts, may have survived in the Levant until the 9th century BCE before being hunted to extinction, though scholar Georgina Herrmann argues most ivory originated from Egypt, Sudan, or North Africa through trade networks connecting the Mediterranean coast to interior Africa.
Phoenician craftsmen, working primarily in coastal cities including Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos in modern Lebanon, produced the majority of ivories found at Nimrud. Their technique emphasized low-relief carving with Egyptian motifs including lotus flowers, sphinxes with Egyptian crowns, the Eye of Horus, winged scarabs, and scenes of the god Horus seated on lotus blossoms. Some pieces bear Phoenician inscriptions on their backs, single letters or short words that likely served as assembly guides indicating how individual plaques should be arranged on furniture frames.
Syrian workshops developed distinct three-dimensional sculptural approaches, creating figurines and decorative elements that projected further from background surfaces than Phoenician low-relief work. Syrian ivories featured animals including lions, bulls, and mythological creatures rendered with greater naturalism and anatomical detail than the more stylized Phoenician tradition.
Assyrian court workshops produced a third category of ivories characterized by incised technique rather than relief carving. Artists used sharp instruments to cut designs into flat ivory surfaces, creating images through line work rather than dimensional modeling. These Assyrian-style pieces depicted royal hunts, warfare, ritual processions, and court ceremonies using iconographic conventions familiar from Assyrian stone palace reliefs.
All three traditions employed extensive surface enrichment beyond the carved ivory itself. Gold leaf covered many pieces, creating brilliant surfaces that caught light in palace interiors. Colored glass inlays, semi-precious stones including lapis lazuli and carnelian, and enamel work filled carved recesses, transforming monochrome ivory into polychrome decorative art. Most ivories found at Nimrud had been stripped of these enrichments in antiquity, leaving only carved ivory and occasional traces of gilding or inlay materials in protected crevices.
The carving process began with selection of appropriate tusk sections. Craftsmen sawed tusks into plaques, cylinders for small figurines, or specially shaped pieces for three-dimensional work. They roughed out basic forms, then progressively refined details using copper or bronze cutting tools. The final surfaces received extensive polishing, creating smooth textures that enhanced the natural luster of fresh ivory.
Technical examination reveals sophisticated joinery systems. Rectangular plaques featured slots, grooves, and dowel holes allowing assembly into larger decorative programs covering furniture surfaces. Some pieces included metal fittings, remnants of hinges or attachment hardware indicating how ivories connected to wooden substrates or to each other.
Form and Features
The plaques range from small pieces measuring 3 to 5 centimeters to substantial panels exceeding 20 centimeters in length. Most fall within standard size ranges suggesting production for specific furniture types. Throne decorations required larger, more elaborate pieces showing complex narrative scenes. Cosmetic box panels utilized smaller formats with simpler compositions.
Female figurines constitute a distinctive category among the ivories. Heads measuring one to two inches in height show women wearing flat caps similar to examples from earlier Tel Megiddo ivories in Israel. Larger heads exceeding five inches demonstrate exceptional carving skill with delicate features and elaborate hairstyles. Many figurines show two naked females joined back to back, interpreted as handles for fans or mirrors or as decorative furniture elements.
The famous "Lioness Mauling a Nubian" plaque, discovered by Mallowan in a well in the Northwest Palace, exemplifies Phoenician craftsmanship at its apex. The 10.3 centimeter high panel shows a lioness attacking a fallen man among stylized papyrus plants, all executed in high relief with extensive gilding and inlays of lapis lazuli and carnelian. Scientific study identified the plaque as one of a pair created by different craftsmen working in ivory, gems, and gold. Its sister plaque, once housed in the Iraq Museum, disappeared during the 2003 looting following the U.S. invasion.
Another exceptional piece, nicknamed the "Mona Lisa of Nimrud," consists of a female head with enigmatic expression and elaborate coiffure found at the bottom of a well. The comparison to Leonardo da Vinci's painting reflects the head's serene beauty and mysterious quality rather than stylistic similarity. Mallowan chose this piece and the "Ugly Sister," a second female head from the same well, to illustrate the dust jackets of his final report volumes, ensuring their prominence in scholarly and popular literature.
Mythological creatures appear throughout the ivory corpus. Sphinxes with human heads, falcon heads, or ram heads trample enemies or adopt poses of adoration before sacred trees. These hybrid beings, combining human, lion, and bird elements, functioned as protective symbols warding off evil forces. Griffin figures mixing eagle and lion features demonstrated similar apotropaic functions.
Geometric and floral patterns provided decorative backgrounds and borders. Guilloches, braided rope patterns, rosettes, palmettes, and lotus chains framed figurative scenes or filled empty spaces. The density and precision of these ornamental elements testify to craftsmen's patience and technical control.
Function and Use
The ivories decorated royal furniture assembled in Assyrian palaces during the 9th and 8th centuries BCE. Throne backs and arms received elaborate ivory panels showing royal iconography and protective deities. Beds featured ivory inlays along headboards and footboards. Tables incorporated ivory elements into legs and surface decorations. Cosmetic containers used ivory panels on all four sides and lids.
Horse trappings constituted another major category of use. Assyrian cavalry and chariot forces utilized elaborate harnesses with ivory decorative elements. These pieces showed protective symbols and royal insignia identifying elite military equipment.
The ivories arrived at Nimrud through multiple channels. Assyrian military campaigns into Syria and Phoenicia during the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III brought extensive tribute and plunder. Stone palace reliefs depict Assyrian soldiers carrying furniture from conquered cities, visual evidence of systematic appropriation of luxury goods. Some ivories may have arrived as diplomatic gifts or through peaceful trade, though the overwhelming majority likely came through military means.
Assyrian kings stored these imported luxuries in palace magazines and storerooms. Rooms V and HH in the Northwest Palace's living quarters contained piles of Syrian and Phoenician ivory furniture components accumulated over decades or centuries. Fort Shalmaneser, a massive palace-arsenal complex, held even larger quantities in Rooms SW 7, 11, 12, and 37 off the Southeast Courtyard. The stripped gold and haphazard storage suggest Assyrians valued the ivories primarily as prestige objects and raw materials rather than functional furniture.
The deliberate destruction that ended many ivories' useful lives occurred when Nimrud fell to combined Median and Babylonian forces in 612 BCE. Fire swept through palaces, charring wooden furniture and the ivory attached to it. Some pieces fell into wells when buildings collapsed, remaining preserved in sludge at the bottoms. This catastrophic end explains why so many ivories show fire damage, blackening, and fragmentary preservation.
Cultural Context
Nimrud, ancient Kalhu, served as capital of the Assyrian Empire under Ashurnasirpal II beginning in 879 BCE. The king constructed the massive Northwest Palace featuring extensive stone relief decorations documenting his military campaigns and ritual activities. His son Shalmaneser III built additional palaces and later kings including Tiglath-Pileser III expanded the complex.
At its height around 800 BCE, Nimrud's population reached approximately 75,000, making it the world's most populous urban center. The city controlled territories extending from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean coast, from Anatolia to Egypt's borders. This vast empire generated tribute flowing to the capital, enriching royal treasuries and filling palace storerooms.
The Phoenician cities that produced most ivories found at Nimrud maintained complex relationships with Assyria. During periods of Assyrian weakness, Phoenician city-states enjoyed relative independence, developing extensive maritime trade networks throughout the Mediterranean. When Assyrian power reasserted itself through military campaigns, Phoenician kings submitted tribute to avoid destruction. This tribute included finished luxury goods including carved ivories alongside raw materials like Lebanese cedar, purple dye, and glass.
The Syrian kingdoms occupying inland territories between Assyria and Phoenicia suffered more direct Assyrian military intervention. Cities including Damascus, Hamath, and Carchemish faced repeated campaigns resulting in annexation or vassalage. Syrian ivory workshops serving these kingdoms produced decorative arts for local rulers before Assyrian conquest redirected their output to imperial centers.
The stylistic fusion evident in the ivories reflects this cosmopolitan environment. Phoenician craftsmen incorporated Egyptian motifs learned through direct contact with Egypt and adapted them to Levantine aesthetic preferences. Syrian artists combined these Egyptianizing elements with Hittite and Mesopotamian influences. When these objects reached Assyrian palaces, they joined locally produced ivories creating eclectic assemblages mixing multiple artistic traditions.
Discovery and Preservation
Austen Henry Layard began work at Nimrud on his first day of excavation, discovering the Northwest Palace and making initial ivory finds on his second day. His meticulous documentation, unusual for mid-19th century archaeology, recorded relative positions and contexts. He immediately recognized Egyptian influence though correctly determined the ivories were not Egyptian products. His popular publications including "Nineveh and its Remains" brought the discoveries to wide audiences, making him a celebrity and advancing public understanding of ancient Mesopotamia.
William Kennett Loftus continued excavations in 1854-1855, discovering extensive ivory deposits in buildings labeled the "South-East Palace" or "Burnt Palace." His February 1855 letter to the Journal of Sacred Literature described finding ivories "strewed at the bottom of a chamber among wood ashes," blackened from fire but preserved. He noted the objects had been fitted together "by means of rivets, slides, and grooves," recognizing the furniture construction techniques.
Max Mallowan's campaigns from 1949 to 1963 under British School of Archaeology in Iraq auspices produced the largest ivory discoveries. His focus on palace chambers where Layard had found finest pieces yielded superb examples including the "Mona Lisa" and "Ugly Sister" recovered from well sludge in 1951. The bulk of Mallowan's discoveries came from Fort Shalmaneser, where thousands of fragments filled multiple storerooms.
Iraqi excavations continued after Mallowan's departure. In 1975, the Iraq Department of Antiquities and Heritage emptied a third well in the Northwest Palace that had been too dangerous for Mallowan to excavate. This well yielded the finest ivories ever discovered in the ancient Near East according to subsequent publications. Muzahim Husain's 1990s excavations uncovered additional pieces, demonstrating Nimrud continued producing archaeological discoveries.
The division of finds between Iraq and excavating institutions followed practices standard during British mandate and early independence periods. Mallowan's excavations allocated approximately 20 percent to the British School of Archaeology in Iraq, with 80 percent retained by Iraq Museum under 1968 legislation ending the partition system. The British School distributed its share among institutional supporters including British Museum, Ashmolean Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, and smaller institutions.
In 2011, the British Museum purchased one-third of the British School collection comprising 1,000 complete ivories and 5,000 fragments for £1.17 million, the museum's second most expensive purchase since World War II. Public fundraising raised £750,000 while the National Heritage Memorial Fund and Art Fund provided grants. The British School donated another third of its collection to the museum in recognition of 24 years of storage.
The 2003 looting of the Iraq Museum following the U.S. invasion resulted in catastrophic losses including ivories. The "Lioness Mauling a Nubian" sister plaque disappeared and remains missing. Thousands of other objects were stolen, many subsequently recovered through international efforts though significant numbers remain lost.
ISIS occupation of Nimrud in 2014 brought systematic destruction. In March 2015, militants bulldozed the site and used explosives to demolish palace structures including Ashurnasirpal II's Northwest Palace. Propaganda videos showed fighters using sledgehammers and power tools to destroy sculptures and reliefs before detonating barrel bombs that leveled approximately 90 percent of excavated areas. UNESCO Director-General Irina Bokova declared these acts war crimes. Iraqi forces retook Nimrud in November 2016, finding the site reduced to rubble fields.
Why It Matters
The Nimrud ivories document extensive trade networks and diplomatic exchanges connecting Mesopotamia with the Mediterranean Levant during the early 1st millennium BCE, demonstrating how Assyrian imperial power redirected luxury craft production from conquered territories to the capital. The artistic fusion of Egyptian motifs adapted by Phoenician and Syrian craftsmen reveals cross-cultural transmission of iconographic traditions and technical knowledge across the ancient Near East. The ivories preserve the otherwise poorly documented art of the Phoenicians, whose coastal cities left limited archaeological remains due to continuous occupation and whose products rarely survived in their homeland. The distribution of finds across 76 museums worldwide, with major concentrations in the United Kingdom and United States resulting from colonial-era excavation practices, exemplifies ongoing debates about cultural property ownership and institutional responsibilities toward objects removed from their countries of origin. The systematic destruction of Nimrud by ISIS in 2015, documented through propaganda videos showing deliberate obliteration of archaeological heritage, demonstrates how cultural property becomes a target during armed conflict and the irreversible loss that results from such destruction. The survival of most ivories in Iraqi and international museum collections provides ongoing evidence of ancient Near Eastern artistic achievement while simultaneously raising questions about how displaced cultural heritage should be preserved, studied, and potentially repatriated.